Handling Groups: Booking, Check in, Checkout

HANDLING GROUPS Groups can bring in huge revenue for a hotel but they make a lot of work. This statement is very much true as groups take up a number of rooms in a hotel all at once bringing in a huge amount of income at one particular point in time. In order for this to go smoothly,all hotel departments need to be given details of group arrivals well in advance so each department can make their own necessary arrangements to be able to handle groups.Various departments would have to work closely together, front office would need to send out copies of group arrival list to all departments atleast one week in advance so that other departments can make appropriate adjustments to number of staff that would be required during those times. The flow pattern for a succession of individual guests is quite different from the flow of group arrivals so housekeeping has to pay close attention ensuring rooms are ready for group arrivals.Head porters also have to arrange necessary number of staff t o be ready to move a large quantity of luggage as quickly as possible so as to not have the group transport around for long periods while unloading. All departments need to have good communication during these times, listen, ask and prepare. When best would hotels accept groups and why? Groups to a hotel can include conference delegates, unexpected group of passengers forced to stay overnight because of bad weather or maybe technical problems.Hotels sometimes are not given the opportunity to plan/prepare further ahead so they must always have a set procedure and guideline in place for un-for-seen times. Hotels would best accept groups during their slack periods, this will help to fill up the rooms and also by charging the highest possible rates for the rooms. This would also bring about the use of yield management where the hotel would be able to fill up all the empty rooms at that point, instead of having so many vacant roomsFive factors to consider when booking groups: 1. Negotiat ion- particular attention when negotiating with group leader over price, as the leader will be in a more powerful bargaining position than individual guests as they are providing the hotel with large amount of business at once so group leaders tend to bargain extremely for low rates and discounted use of facilities etc. 2.Group reservation request form- hotels needs to ensure group leader fills in and submit this form which is usually listed on hotels websites or calling direct to the hotel giving the information and also through group reservation specialist collecting all necessary information about the number in group, number of rooms, type of rooms, special requests, arrival and departure dates and times etc. 3.Payment arrangement- the arranged package prices are transfer to the group leader ledger account, it is safe for the hotel to open a separate extras account for group members individually for them to get drinks, laundry, room service on credit if this credit was not extend ed and this should be clearly noted and understood by both the group and hotel departments so as to prevent any uncomfortable situations. . Additional administrative arrangements- document a summerization of details and outline the arranged dividing of hotels responsibilities to group members and that of the group leader to it’s members, this document would include if a separate check in area is provided for the group check in which would help in avoiding long queues at reception and also to foster the feeling of group collision. 5.Couriers arrangement- when groups travel they usually have a courier/tour organiser and sometimes a driver which are free/at a reduced rate, these things should be made note of especially if the courier took care of administrative tasks as well, which would have then had to be done by the hotel own staff. Five factors to consider when checking in groups: 1. Pre registration- hotel can print off individual registration forms along with a prepared we lcome package, prepare two keys for double occupancy rooms and arrange special envelopes with group keys in ascending order. . Special code reference for each group- on check in enter group code and guest automatically transfers the agreed accommodation and meal charges to a master bill, and all extras are charged on a individual account for group members if so desired. 3. Pre arrival registration form- hotel gets the individual registration forms to groups for them to fill out on their way to the hotel, so this part is dealt with even before guests arrive at the hotel, so information is only rechecked at point of contact with reception. 4.Rooming list- hotel should obtain a copy of rooming list from the group leader in order to update individual guest profiles proving names, addresses and passport numbers into the pms system. 5. In house report/groups- immediately after check in hotel should update the system to enable all guest names, room number, special request etc, and print a copy of group in house room reports and circulate to all departments such as front desk, housekeeping, concierge, room service. Five factors to consider when checking out groups: . Ensure all group billing are prepared and billed carefully, as in some instances some group members may stay on longer after the rest of the group have left the hotel, so to ensure those individual guest are billed separately for the group rates and their individual rates. 2. Extras- making sure all other charges incurred by all individual group members are billed separately and not added to the agreed contract between hotel and group leader of accommodation and specific meal option. 3.Collecting of all key passes to rooms from individual group members, where provision was made to provide two keys for a number of single/double rooms. 4. To enquire about actual check out times of individual group members to have various departments on standby eg. Housekeeping to start cleaning and preparing rooms again for new expected guests/walk-ins, and for porters to help remove belongings from individual guest rooms in a timely manner. 5. Hotel should at check out of groups try selling single packages to individual group members, or even family and other group packages as well.

Poles Reading Fewer and Fewer Books Essay

Poles reading fewer and fewer books – speculating about the causes Fewer and fewer Poles are reading books nowadays. It is mostly visible in the libraries, book stories and even in the reading rooms. What are the causes of such phenomena? Let us look at three of them: lack of time, the rise of technology and laziness. It seems that the main cause might be that Poles have no time for reading books. These days more and more people are overworked, and when they finally have their leisure time they prefer to go to the cinema or to the party rather than read books. Going to the library and borrowing books also requires some time and may be problematic to many people. Another important cause is that technology plays an important role in many people’s lives. The new technology, which is developing day by day offers a lot of facilities, interesting methods of spending time. People are focused on gaining new abilities, moving with the times and books are often considered as something archaic and unnecessary. What may also contribute to such a phenomenon as reading fewer and fewer books by Poles is the fact that they are simply lazy. It seems that going to the library and borrowing a book demands too much effort for contemporary people. As far as teenagers are concerned, they prefer much easier things to do, for example staring at the television, playing video games or going to a pub. Taking everything into consideration, I can state that reading books by Poles as a way of spending their free time is becoming less popular. Nowadays people spend their time mainly on working and are generally not interested in books. It can be difficult to change this negative attitude towards reading but it is certainly worth trying.

Concept of Prometheus Within Frankenstein

The concept of â€Å"Prometheus† within Mary Shelley’s â€Å"Frankenstein† Index Introduction – 3 Greek Promethean myth – 4 The Modern Prometheus – 5 Conclusion – 7 Bibliography – 8 Introduction In this short work, it will be made an explanation about what is the Greek Promethean myth and the message behind this myth. It will also be made a comparison between this message and the subjacent theme of the â€Å"Modern Prometheus† in Mary Shelley’s â€Å"Frankenstein†.Looking at the main character of Mary Shelley’s novel, it will also be important to describe in what way, and according to the Greek Promethean myth, Victor Frankenstein is the â€Å"Modern Prometheus† as referred in the title of the book. Greek Promethean myth The Promethean myth first appeared in the late 8th-century BC Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony. He was a son of the Titan Iapetus, one of the Oceanids (keepers of the water). In Greek mythology, Prometheus is a Titan whose name meant â€Å"forethought†, and indeed, he was said to have the ability to look into the future.Prometheus was the creator of mankind. The goddess Athene taught him architecture, astronomy, mathematics, navigation, medicine, and metallurgy, and he in turn taught them to humans. Zeus, the chief of the Greek gods, became angry at Prometheus for making people powerful by teaching them all these useful skills. He is the younger brother of Atlas, who was banished to Tartarus during the Titanomachy. Prometheus, however, sided with the gods in the war, having foreseen their victory. Helios and Epimetheus also chose to defect.In doing so, Prometheus also tried to persuade his brother Atlas and their father Iapetus to side with the Olympians, but both of them ignored his attempts. After the Great War, Prometheus fashioned man from clay and helped them, even to the point of severely angering Zeus and, when the gods chose Prometheus as arbiter in a dispute, he fooled the gullible Zeus into picking the worst parts of the sacrificial bull by hiding them under a rich layer of fat. To punish Prometheus, Zeus withheld fire from men. â€Å"Let them eat their flesh raw,† he declared.In response, Prometheus, snuck up to Mount Olympus, lit a torch from the sun, and hid a burning piece of charcoal in a hollow stalk. He slipped away with it and thus delivered fire to mankind. As punishment however, Zeus then chained him to a mountain for an Eagle to peck out his liver only to have it regenerated through the night. Heracles eventually killed the eagle and freed Prometheus, which Zeus allowed as he deemed Prometheus' suffering sufficient. Modern Prometheus The Modern Prometheus is Mary Shelley’s novel subtitle (though some modern publishings of the work now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an introduction).The term â€Å"Modern Prometheus† was actually coined by Immanuel Kant, referring to Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity (this having to do with the way the creature was brought to life). As mentioned before, Prometheus was the Titan who created mankind, a task given to him by Zeus. He was to create a being with clay and water in the image of the gods. Prometheus taught man to hunt, read, and heal their sick, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor-quality offerings from humans, Zeus kept fire from mankind. Prometheus took back the fire from Zeus to give to man.When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock where each day an eagle would peck out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god. He was intended to suffer alone for all of eternity, but eventually Heracles (Hercules) released him. The way Prometheus makes man from clay and water is a relevant theme to Frankenstein, as Victor rebels against the laws of nature (how life is naturally made) and as a result is punished by his creation.The Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein. Victor's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of the Titan in creating humans. According to the original myth, fire was the one thing that man was not supposed to have because it belonged solely to the Gods, so when Prometheus stole fire for man, it meant that man was trespassing on immortal territory and man suffered because of Prometheus's gift. While Prometheus had his liver eaten every day, Victor didn’t have an organ ripped violently from his lower torso.But he did suffer a similar form of prolonged torture: all his loved ones being singled out and killed. He was not punished for stealing fire, but he was punished for trespassing on immortal territory by playing God. Also, fire is associated with goodness and knowledge. Fire is symbolic of human progress as well as the dangers of human invention, or possibly the dangers of natu re as opposed to humans, and Victor’s creature is paralleled to fire in the Greek Myth: the creature could be good or bad, depending on how much care you take in approaching it. And in Victor’s case, that would be no care at all.While fire is good and useful, bringing warmth and the ability to cook, it can also be a weapon, a massively destructive force, if not properly controlled. The monster is the same. He had so much potential for good. He desired to be good, gentle, kind, and loving, but at every turn he was denied. Because of this he became a destructive force bent on the ruin of his maker. Victor Frankenstein is plagued by his creation. He is hunted, haunted, and tormented. The rest of his life becomes a game, a chase between creator and created. Much like Prometheus, Frankenstein suffers greatly for the good he tried to do. However, there are differences.Fire is an unthinking, unfeeling thing. It need not be taught. It does not require love. Fire did not requir e anything from Prometheus. The monster, on the other hand, was a being of great depth and feeling. He was capable of growth and good, but his master neglected and abandoned him. Frankenstein should not have abandoned the thing he created. He should have faced what he had done and given it a chance at a better life. There is also an other interpretation for this, perhaps a more plain one. In more recent science fiction, the Promethean myth is applied in the following way: mankind receives technology that is beyond their understanding.For instance, in the TV show â€Å"Stargate†, the first human interstellar ship is called â€Å"Prometheus† and it is build with the help of an alien race. This concept can also be applied to the work of Mary Shelley, explaining that men do require time and study to understand things as they truly are. The creature was not bad. It was made bad by men surrounding it. So, it can be said that both Prometheus and Frankenstein successfully crea ted human life and faced results not in line with their expectations. In an attempt to help their creations, both Prometheus and Victor Frankenstein caused more damage and disorder.This eventually led to the harm of both, either through death or eternal torture. Conclusion As we could see, there are many similarities between the stories of Prometheus and Victor Frankenstein. Both tried to do â€Å"bend† the rules, in order to achieve something they believed would be beneficial. But in the end, they both caused more harm than good. Bibliography Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus. Ed. Susan J. Wolfson. New York: Pearson Longman, 2007 Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, Moyer Bell Ltd. , 1955. Mellor, Anne K.Mary Shelley: Her Life, her Fiction, Her Monsters. London: Routledge, 1990 Why is Frankenstein subtitled The Modern Prometheus? , available in http://www. angelfire. com/anime5/frank/Prometheus. html Frankenstein as Prometheus, available in http://cmaree. hu bpages. com/hub/Frankenstein-as-Prometheus Analysis on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, available in http://www. articlemyriad. com/analysis-frankenstein-mary-shelley Who was Prometheus? , available in http://www. enotes. com/frankenstein/q-and-a/frankenstein-who-was-prometheus-262555

Mankind are Greater Gainers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mankind are Greater Gainers - Essay Example It is true that humankind is not fallible, that their truths are mostly half-truths. It results from the freest and fullest comparison of opinions that are opposite. It is not desirable until they are capable at present of recognizing sides of the truth. These principles can be applied to men’s action modes. In the society, it is desirable that in those things that do not concern others primarily, individuality should assert itself. Where, not the individuals own character, but the traditional customs of other people are the conducts rule, there is wanting one of principal ingredients of human happiness, and quite the chief ingredient of social and individual progress. In the process of maintaining this principle, the greatest challenges and difficulty to be encountered does not   entail appreciation of means towards the end that acknowledge, but in the indifference of persons in general to the end. If at all it were felt that free development of individuality is among the l eading essentials of well-being; it is not only an element of co-ordinate designated by the civilization, education, culture and instruction terms but is itself a necessary part, then danger would not exist at all that liberty should be undervalued by any means. Huge numbers of people in the society are satisfied with ways of mankind as they currently are. This is because it is they who make them be what they are, and cannot understand why those ways should not be good for every person in the society. It will probably be seen that people who are desirable good should be exercising their understanding, and following customs intelligently. It would be misunderstanding J. Mills’s doctrine supposing that it is one among the selfish indifference, which is pretending that human beings have nothing at all to do with each other’s conduct of life, and that they should not should not concern themselves with the well-being of another person unless their personal interest is engag ed. There is a need of increasing disinterest exertion to promoting other people's good.

Speech using the Rogerian style of argumentation Essay

Speech using the Rogerian style of argumentation - Essay Example Several instances have been reported concerning the increased aggression among the victims. Others also report increased criminal or violent behavior among the victims. In other situations, corporal punishment in schools can lead to escalated antisocial behavior and moral internalization among the learners. My position differs from those who argue that corporal punishment should not be banned in schools or other learning institutions. My position is that corporal punishment in schools and other learning institutions should be banned. This does not include normal discipline mechanisms that parent use at home. It also does not include the nonviolent punitive methods employed by teachers to enhance discipline among learners. Corporal punishment in public and private schools and other learning institutions should be banned because it poses devastating effects on the learners. These include loss of good family relationship and damage to education. It leads to all forms of violation of the fundamental rights of children such as the right to education and good

Method of chemical strengthening Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Method of chemical strengthening - Coursework Example   A glass has low tensile strength compared to other solids. Glass is considered to be a liquid solid, an amorphous solid. It lacks crystalline structure which other solid used to have. Lacking crystalline structure, a glass has a very slow moving set of molecules with no definite arrangement. There are several techniques to strengthen tensile strength of a glass material. One technique is strengthening by means of so much heat and cold. The glass material is first heated at an extremely high temperature and then suddenly cooled. The effect of heating is by loosing more the molecules and the sudden cooling is to compress it thereafter. Another method of strengthening is called chemical strengthening. This is where the glass material is submerged into a potassium nitrate solution. The high-mass potassium molecule, which is bigger, then replaces the sodium molecule in the glass material. It compresses the surface of the glass material and thus, making it more tough. 3. Griffith is co ncerned not for the strength of a material but for more, the defects. His equation is to know the ability of a material to resist a flaw and fractures. He used Young’s modulus or the stress over strain ratio to get how much stress energy is needed for a material to rupture from a certain length of fracture. Needless to say, the less stress over strain ratio a material has the little stress energy it will need to rupture and collapse. Now steel in general has 200 GPa and a glass only has 90 GPa.

How Postmodernity effect my work(packaging design),how does it impact Essay

How Postmodernity effect my work(packaging design),how does it impact on my practice - Essay Example This paper analyses these two concepts as well as providing a discussion on how they impact the packaging design & consumer behavior discipline. Postmodernity is basically refers to the movement of the global economy a new sophisticated information age in which the way people and consumer behave are react to different spatial and visual stimuli has changed as well as the activities society performs on a daily basis. Postmodernity implies the movement of the individual from a cognitive world into a semiotic world in which knowledge acquisition and production is manipulated by new signs and symbols (Venkatesh). Visual style and aesthetics are two attributes of importance for graphic designers creating packaging alternatives based on consumer behavior which is influenced by forces such as values, beliefs and perception; characteristics that are integral components of a postmodern society (Scott). The article Playing with Pictures, Postmodernism and Advertising discusses how postmodernity is highly influential in many of the new jobs generated by the new knowledge economy. In the packaging design business the distribution channe ls and the medium used for mass marketing purposes are connected to a single network fueled by high speed broadband information transferring systems. The ads, album covers, table setting, magazine layouts and music ideas are all tools used by designers which are associated with postmodernity (Scott). In certain parts of the world in which many professionals practice packaging design postmodernity has influenced the work of packaging designers more than in the western hemisphere. In China the effects of postmodernity were more imminent to society as a whole due to the radical internal changes in the economic, political and social systems of the country. The article Chinese Modern Design: A Retrospective depicts the social atmosphere in China and the influence of

Product Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Product Assessment - Essay Example Fax machines had been very popular in offices and at home for transmitting messages anywhere for some time. According to coupon. chili.com website, an environmentalist group, there are about 46.3 million fax machines in the world, most of which are held in the United States, Japan, Germany, France and UK (in that order) . This group is worried on the environmental effect of the staggering amount of paper consumed by the operation which they presumed to reach 853 miles of paper or approx. 1.373 kilometers and an impact to 2 million trees used for paper. It was once an important piece of technology that is attached to a telephone. However it is now considered by several analysts as an outdated technology that has many flaws. In the office setting, it is considered as a security risk for information and one that consumes a lot of money and materials. Due to other available means of communication, the fax machine is now suffering from a steady decline. For instance, as cited by Nick Staf feiri (April 9, 2010), law firms in Philadelphia have decreased its facsimile usage by about 55 to 70% from previous years due to electronic preference of documents than paper. A survey done by Linkedin to 7,000 professionals in 17 countries around the globe showed that it is one of the products that is slowly losing its appeal and would disappear by 2017 (Vivian Gang. Sept 25, 2012). So it is closer to an end, and by this time manufacturers in the US should have developed a strategy to avert this closure. Recommendations Businesses have a product cycle of growth, maturity and decline. In each stage businesses have to adjust strategies to complement the needs of the market and environment. In the declining stage, businesses will notice a decline in sales of the product or service. a. When a product reaches declining stage, it is about time that the company does strategic actions to resuscitate the dying business. At this point, company should look into foreign markets that have need for the fax machine. Wagner, K. (May 15, 2013), a reporter of the CNN, argued that in some markets, fax machines refused to die. This is the case in Japan wherein the popularity of fax machines has grown roots into the Japanese society. Old folks have developed attachment to the fax machine that they found it hard to replace regardless of the modern technology. Taking this as a cue, manufacturers of fax machine should take the market opportunity of developing third world countries. Statistics compiled by the Nation Master website showed that there are more users of fax machine in Japan aside from US, than in any other countries while fewer users are shown for African and Asian countries. This is an opportune time to develop these regions and introduce the product. b. It is also about time that manufacturers of fax machines upgrade their product to cope up with the advent of new technology. In order for the fax system to expand, it will be necessary to bring into it developments of multiple functions of the information system. But of course, this will be a tall order that will cause its reinvention and would incur a lot of new investments. Adding new features would be a risky investment where return of investment is not sure. c. Reduce marketing expenses such as advertisements and promotions. These are overhead expenses that could reduce operating cost and help preserve the business, and if sales do not improve, manufacturer

Effective Management of Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Effective Management of Research - Essay Example that helps little in the meaningful scholastic development of students. Most research models, in effect, send out students with a shopping cart who go scooping up all the data they can find about the subject assigned to them - a state, a province, a foreign country, an historic battle, a famous person, a scientific issue. Most of the information collected in this manner is available in encyclopedias or books, such that it precludes diligence, care or the need to work "again." This kind of research puts students in the role of information consumers instead of information producers as befit a researcher in the true sense of the word. The implications are that this research, ending up as information consumption, demands little thought, imagination or skill on the part of the students. Working as information producers, on the other hand, the student researchers are encouraged to make up their own minds, create their own answers to the research questions and show independence and judgment. With all kinds of new information technologies around, the "cut-and-paste" method inherent to the topical approach to school research is proving more and more untenable. A new approach has thus emerged enshrining the rule that students cannot embark on a research project without an ideal research model selected for them by a search team composed of teachers, librarians and the school administrators. This team assists the student researchers in analyzing different models then settle for one that matches the projected needs and preferences of the project. The other method synthesizes the best features of all available models to go into the building of a new one. (Assiniboine SSD) Ideally, a research topic is considered worth the students' effort if it is controversial, has attracted much interest and debate, a first-of-its-kind process or product, involves innovative or new techniques, and has value in other disciplines. The work of an eminent researcher is another interesting subject for research, as well as any individual who has achieved prominence the hard way. In the new approach, the students are not only asked to turn in a paper on, let us say, the atrocities ordered by Hitler. They are also required to put together a template of questions that would shed light on many interrelated issues, such as why Hitler behaved the way he did, the history of both the Jews and the Aryan race, the lessons learned from the Holocaust, etc. There is a primary questions accompanied by a set of subsidiary questions to get to the bottom and all angles of the subject. (McKenzie, 2000) In this new perspective, research is a process in repetition (Olin Uris Libraries). The earlier phases of the research influence the later stages, while the later stages have some bearing on the earlier phases. Going back and forth is necessary to ensure the reliability and validity of the research, which can be done only through constant review and revision. Remember that at the end of your journey, your research will be subjected to

Leadership in nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leadership in nursing - Essay Example This paper aims to provide a model of leadership in nursing. It also outlines factors that influence leadership styles, discusses approaches to leadership and the impact of the leadership style on nursing care. Besides, impact on nursing education/practice, role of the nurse, problem identification, solution, and nursing implication is discussed at length. Leadership is about knowing how to make visions become reality. This definition remains constant whether it is nursing, medical or healthcare leadership. In general the vision that nurses have is one where patients are treated with dignity and respect at all times; where systems are designed for the benefit of individual needs; and where the work performed by nurses is valued and respected. From a nursing perspective the three key foundation stones that helped nursing achieve the vision of a patient centred health service are development of patient centred care measures as part of performance management and the clinical governance agenda; leadership based on personal growth and development principles and; new clinical career and competency framework for nursing (Kitson, 2001). Achieving these visions will require a paradigm shift in the philosophy, priorities, policies, and power relationships of the health service. While a fall in the number of nursing leaders may be attributed to the current nursing shortage, studies have noted that there is also a significant deficiency in the number of nursing leaders. Even at major research and teaching hospitals, chief financial officers are worried about the scarcity of nursing staff (Singhapattanapong, 2002). Unfortunately an overlooked aspect of this nursing shortage is the dearth of leaders among nurses. In 2002, nurses are in a distinct position to influence healthcare policy and legislation. There is a need for nursing leadership to exert that influence and by nurturing both

American Wartime Music Composers - Cohan & Berlin Term Paper

American Wartime Music Composers - Cohan & Berlin - Term Paper Example The 20th century was such a juxtaposition of styles, forms, and genres of music that it was difficult to chose two "composers" who had something in common. Perception is one of the most important tools of propaganda. For the first time aural perception was combined with the visual. Audiences became more demanding as the subjective choice of music was more diverse and more complicated . The radio was a significant factor in the mass distribution of different types of music. By World War II, composers of all genre were put in the forefront for the first time in history . Contrary to social believe, composers were highly touched by the effects of the number of deaths of the World War I and the number of deaths by the flue pandemic which closed theaters for almost 3 years. The two World Wars created different levels of propaganda and thus music was used differently. By World War II, audiences expected to be entertained by going to dance halls, jazz bands, musicals, music revues†¦. A s radio was a major form of entertainment in the majority of American households, music stations flourished. By World War II, it was common to go to cinema once a week. The United States War Office had a "Wartime Music Committee". (Sheppard 304) Audiences at home were under the influence that all was going well in both wars and soldiers were played music when they were in the mess hall; saw movies and were fed propaganda that the Americans were winning battles. Music was an important part of the war effort Each soldier was given a book of military songs. Over 9 000 songs were composed from the start of World War 1. Composers and producers were drafted or volunteered to entertain the troops. At the turn of the century, Musical theatre was a juxtaposition of a group of songs with a slight story line. George Cohan (b. 1878 d.1942) was raised in a family of vaudeville performers. (Kenrick) In the early 1900's the US was in a state of economic stability and patriotism. American Musical t heater was in its infancy. Vaudeville performances were still common. A group of diverse traveling performers would perform on stage with no continuity in the program. He is quoted as saying his family was making $1 000.00 a week in the late 1800's. (Kenrick)When he came to New York, he began writing and composing his own songs and "sketches". They were the equivalent of musicals but they were simplistic and missed the continuity of full musicals of today. They were a group of songs, perhaps in different keys without any or a few common musical themes. He is considered the father of American Musical Theatre.(Ewan 68) As a proud chauvinist, his song writing was one of the first to be used to promote national cause or "national propaganda". As soon as President Wilson declared war, his most famous song "Over There" became a national hit. (Kenrick) It showed the value of fighting the war. His war songs showed the negative side of staying out of the war. His songs did not take into acco unt the human emotional side of fighting a war. Irving Berlin (1888-1989) was one of many Jewish immigrants who came to the US as a child. He lived in abject poverty. His father was a singer (cantor) in the synagogue so his son would have had vocal religious training. This fact is not to be neglected as a young orthodox Jew he chanted his studies. (Kenrick) Once in the US, his father died within 2 years and as a child I Berlin went to work on the streets to help support his family. Little by little

Gender Roles in Society Essay Example for Free

Gender Roles in Society Essay What is gender role? Gender roles can be linked closely to the Bible as the relations between men and women as both intuitive and sensual. Biologically gender is not determined; however, as a result of sexual characteristics of either men or women, it is established socially. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations gender is a central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution. Gender issues focus on women and on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources, division of labor, interests and needs. Gender relations influence family well-being, household security, planning, production and many other aspects of life including the way we think or feel according to one’s gender. For this reason the definition of gender role today should be revised and predefined because the meaning it once had is no longer comparable with the Bible. Many countries have experienced huge turmoil and revising of its traditional gender roles within the last generation. These changes in gender roles affect the home, the workplace, and the school, plus they affect all walks of life to some degree. Gender role is a commonly discussed subject in society and many may argue about the true role of a man or a woman. Society and culture are also very important in relation to this subject. This means different societies and cultures may produce children and later, grown men and women, who have quite different views of a man or a womans place in the world around them, often determined by their cultures gender stereotypes. Gender roles are attached to persons according to their gender. So, what are men’s and womens roles in society? Should they be equal or do they have well defined roles they should play? In this day and age, people like to be intolerant by attempting to make the two sexes equal. Most people feel that it is unfair to say that women can do certain activities better than men and men can do other activities better than women but God actually made men and women differently and has given them different roles in life and society. God has made men and women to fit certain roles He has defined. The Bible talks a lot about Gods roles for men and women. Genesis, the first book of the Bible, talks about Creation and how sin entered the world. When God created everything, it was perfect and good. Right after Adam and Eve disobeyed God, God kicked them out of the perfect place he had made for them called the Garden of Eden. Genesis 3:16-19 says: To the woman He said, I will greatly multiply your pain in childbirth, in pain you shall bring forth children; yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you. Then to Adam He said, Cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life. Both thorns and thistles it shall grow for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field; by the sweat of your face you shall eat bread. This is God’s first example of roles to women and men. It was meant for men to take care of land and work it for food to provide for his family and women would bear children and take care of them and raise them while their husband worked. Again, a man and woman’s role is well defined in a home. They are both made for each other and to grow strong as one. A woman has quite a unique role to fill. She is made as a companion for her husband because without a wife a man is alone and she is the only one who can provide the companionship needs. She should give her husband affection because he needs it just as she needs it also and only she may know the husband in such a way to provide the kind of affection he needs. A wife is there to give physical needs because God made man and woman to rely on one another. Also a woman should bear children for her husband to make a family that they can all love and appreciate. Most mothers spend more time with her children and her influence on their character development is great because they see her the most. Lastly, every woman should be a keeper at home and this requires diligence and the kind of care only women can provide. It is a place of honor among God and His people. â€Å"A woman should be a guard, and ruler and keeper of the affairs of the home† (Prov. 31:13-15). There is nothing wrong with a woman working, as long as it is done in the right way it is honorable. All women, whether married or not, can look to the worthy woman for guidance for living godly lives. In God’s pattern we do not see slavery, but freedom, honor, and true beauty. However, all women shall strive to fulfill their God given roles in their own families, so as to gain honor for themselves, for their families, and for God. In addition, a man’s role in society differs quite differently from a woman. The man is the key to making the family work the way God intended. God puts the responsibility of having a Biblical family on the man. On top of that, men are under a lot of job pressure because of the failing economy which makes it harder to provide for the family. Many men never had a role model in their home. There should be Godly men helping their off springs to become who they ought to be for the glory of God. Men should love their family as Jesus loved the church; he is to also love the members of his family as he loves his body. He is to nourish it. He is to cherish it. He is to take care of it. Thats the way God wants a man to love his family. Eph. 5:23 says, â€Å"For the husband is the head of the wife, even as Christ is the head of the church and the Savior of the body. † Notice that it didnt say the head over the wife; it said the head of the wife. It is not dictatorship. A man is not the dictator in the family but the man is to protect and provide for his family. Being a good provider is not enough as men have a spiritual responsibility. They should get their family in church each Sunday and take every opportunity to help them learn about Jesus Christ and to grow in their relationship with Him. Men should obey the word of the Lord and ask the Lord to help him be the man he should be. Many of men have failed to lead their family like they should. However, if he is the man, the father, the kind of husband God wants him to be, and if he lifts his family to be everything God wants them to be, one of these days he will reap a good harvest in his children. However, the shifting of gender roles in the past thirty years has been huge. It has happened so quickly that men and women are still trying to sort out what the new roles and rules mean to them although women are no longer expected to be the keepers of the house, in reality, they are in most families and although men are generally open to the successes enjoyed by the women they share their lives with, some still find it hard to celebrate a woman’s triumphs because they feel it attenuates their own. Even though the Bible clearly states the role of a man and a woman many individuals may argue this because the Bible was written a long time ago and they feel such implications do not apply anymore. Yet, the Bible is the word of God and his word is always right and should be abided by no matter how we may feel. Historically, it is important also to note that cultural differences flourish in the emphasis of one’s gender role and in certain societies such assumption in accepted gender norms can also play some part in the definition of gender identity. It will take time to sort out all the assumptions of the changing gender roles of individuals, but new expectations should result in better lives, better relationships, better schools, and better workplaces.

Activity Based Costing (ABC) Case Study: Exxonmobil

Activity Based Costing (ABC) Case Study: Exxonmobil STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT This paper presents an assessment of the set up of an activity-based costing (ABC) for Exxon Mobil, a global oil company. The discussion in the paper is structured as follows: Setting up an activity-based costing for Exxon Mobil – This first section presents an overview of activity-based costing and focuses on how such a system could be set up for Exxon Mobil. Stages involved in designing ABC systems – The second section of the paper presents the stages involved in the set up of an activity-based costing system. Selection of cost drivers – An important factor in the set up of an activity-based costing system is the selection of the cost drivers. The third section of the paper discusses this. Calculation and Examples– The fourth section presents an example calculation for the activity-based costing for Exxon Mobil. Limitations of information from ABC systems – The fifth section of the paper presents the limitations and issues in the use of activity-based costing. Conclusion – Finally, the last section summarises the arguments presented in the paper and highlights the key points to conclude the paper. A.  SETTING UP AN ACTIVITY-BASED COSTING FOR EXXON MOBIL Activity-based costing is utilised to improve business processes through behavioural, business and accounting practices, and â€Å"focuses on costs associated with activities, but also evaluates whether those activities add value, thus providing a means of understanding how to most effectively reduce costs† (Maiga Jacobs, 2003). This paper discusses specific areas that will help ExxonMobil in setting up an activity-based costing system. It is possible to set this up for ExxonMobil to drive its performance but this will require two key principles in pursuing this approach: Commitment from senior management – Setting up the ABC system will require strong commitment from senior management as there may be challenges and questions raised by different stakeholders as this approach is pursued. Transparency in measures – In addition to commitment, setting up an ABC system will also require that the organisation be transparent in its financial and operating figures in order to achieve the most benefit from implementing such a system. B.  STAGES INVOLVED IN DESIGNING ABC SYSTEMS There are several key stages that organisations need to follow in designing ABC systems in organisations. The key stages in designing ABC systems are as follows (Allott, 2004): Determine scope and key activities performed – This stage involves the development of key objectives and activities for departments and the organisation. The challenge in this stage is to ensure that there aren’t too many activities that then render the analysis as inaccurate given the detail required. Apportion direct staff time and assess the organisations’ resources required –The management within the businesses then need to assess the resources required to work on the key activities defined in the first stage. This stage requires the evaluation of where employees spent their time, as this will be apportioned as part of the ABC system. Add other direct costs – Aside from the costs related to the staff and their time, other direct costs will also need to be included as part of the analysis and measurement. Allocate department and corporate overheads and identify the key outputs produced – The outputs for the activities determined in stage one should be defined. These outputs should be largely measurable though there could be some activities that won’t have directly measurable outputs. From this, departmental and corporate overheads can then be allocated. Split into value-adding and non-value adding activities and also assess activity-level drivers and cost-input drivers – The fourth stage is to assess the value-adding and non-value-adding activities, and also the factors that cause the activity to occur which includes both activity-level drivers and cost-input drivers. The activity-level drivers are related to the frequency of the occurrence of the activities while the cost-input drivers are related to the cost of performing the activities for the organisation. Cost drivers are particularly important in designing ABC systems and the next section discusses this concept further. Calculate unit cost – Once all the measurements and factors have been defined, it is then possible to calculate the unit cost for various output measures. This will then drive the next stage. Use findings to determine improvement opportunities – In designing and implementing an ABC system, there should be well define improvement opportunities that the organisations will target. This will be based on the findings that result from the analysis and are important, as this will drive the actions of the employees and the organisation. Thus, these improvement opportunities should be initiatives that are achievable and, at the same time, could impact the performance of the organisation significantly, if achieved. The stages defined above are the high-level key stages in designing and implementing an ABC system for organisations. C.  SELECTION OF COST DRIVERS As mentioned in the previous section on the stages of designing an ABC system, the identification of cost-input drivers is important in the proper implementation of the ABC system. This section discusses the selection of cost drivers in greater detail in the context of an ABC system. Cost drivers play an important role as the objective in identifying the cost drivers is to be able to determine how the organisations can manage and control the costs effectively and make beneficial changes to how these costs drive the organisation. The end goal then is to have lower costs for the firm and better operational and financial performance which could lead to strong competitive advantages for organisations versus the competitors in a sector. There are some principles that are important in the identification of the cost drivers for an ABC system. The selection of cost drivers is important for the following reasons: Drive performance of organisation – The ABC system can be used through the cost drivers to drive the performance of the organisation. Improve internal understanding – Having the right cost drivers selected for the ABC system will enhance the understanding of the employees of the value-adding activities and be able to focus on the activities that merit the most time. Address external concerns – Finally, some external stakeholders will need to be catered to in the selection of cost drivers. The next few paragraphs show how this is important. Aside from an internal assessment of the key cost drivers for an organisation, there are also factors that could come into play. For example, one of the factors driving the selection of cost drivers is external pressure on these cost drivers. Given the increasing focus on the environment in recent years, the pressure to control and manage the environmental costs especially in industries such as the oil sector has increased with investors concerned about potential liabilities that could impact the firm and the general public, including the government, concerned about the health consequences that may result from toxic emissions and materials (Lee, 2005). These environmental costs can be significant as seen from the following examples (Lee, 2005): W. R. Grace had charges totalling US$50 million in 1998 for environmental remediation Koch Petroleum Group spent significant amounts over the course of a few years for environmental impact and refinery pollution: circa US$7 million in 1998, circa US$$8 million in 1999, and circa US$2 million in 2000 NCH Corporation charged earnings in the amount of circa US$16 million in 2000 for environmental remediation Unocal provided provisions amounting to US$22 million in 2002 for environmental remediation and lowering earnings Overall for industries such as utilities, steel and metals, oil, paper, and chemicals, which deal with environmentally-sensitive areas, estimates place â€Å"environmental expenditures to be annual spending of over 1% of revenues† Thus, with the pressure externally to manage environmental costs, this has become a cost driver that firms such as Exxon Mobil need to include in an activity-based costing system. The key reasons for including this cost driver are as follows (Lee, 2005): Environmental issues continue to be increasingly focused on by the public and environmental groups globally Environmental decision-making is thus critical and information to be able to manage and control this factor needs to be collected by the relevant firms A proactive stance in managing environmental costs can be very beneficial for firms in these environmentally-sensitive areas particularly â€Å"in terms of risk reduction, prevention of liabilities, and the preservation of firm reputation† D.  CALCULATION AND EXAMPLE In implementing an ABC system in ExxonMobil, it is important to have an initial review of what the cost drivers for Exxon Mobil could be in terms of the design of an ABC system. Before continuing on this path, a number of assumptions have to be stated: (1) this is a high level example of a calculation for ExxonMobil as an in-depth review has not been conducted to properly do an ABC system for the organisation, (2) only quick estimates are presented given that these are based on an outside-in perspective utilising existing financial reports, (3) no specific details have been provided yet by the organisation. The focus of this analysis is only on the Upstream (Oil Gas Exploration and Production) division. A review of their summary annual report indicates that the following could be the key cost drivers that Exxon Mobil would focus on for their ABC system: 2007 Canada Outside Revenue US So. America America Worldwide Production Costs 2,275 2,206 5,852 10,333 Depn and depletion 1,493 1,256 6,159 8,908 Exploration Expenses 282 273 947 1,502 Taxes 1,347 126 8,258 9,731 Income tax 2,429 1,190 23,924 27,543 Total Costs 7,826 5,051 45,140 58,017 Number of units (mn) 232 167 1,126 1,526 Unit Costs 33.70 30.16 40.09 38.03 With re-allocation Production Costs 2,048 1,985 6,300 10,333 Depn and depletion 1,493 1,256 6,159 8,908 Exploration Expenses 254 246 1,003 1,502 Taxes 1,262 118 8,351 9,731 Income tax 2,276 1,111 24,156 27,543 Total Costs 7,332 4,716 45,969 58,017 Number of units (mn) 232 167 1,126 1,526 Unit Costs 31.57 28.16 40.83 38.03 + other central costs 8.00 8.00 12.00 10.95 (per unit) Total unit costs 39.57 36.16 52.83 48.98 Revenue per unit 52.42 49.40 55.55 54.40 Profit per unit 12.85 13.24 2.72 5.42 The above calculations are based on a number of assumptions made for the purpose of showing how using an ABC system could alter the results of the performance of the regions and allow the organisation to then make better decisions. The assumptions were made up in this scenario and it could be the other way around in that the greater costs end up in the US and Canada / South America regions. The objective in showing these calculations were to highlight the impact that activity-based costing could have in generating a deeper understanding of the costs that are incorporated in the financials of organisations. The way the costs are then broken up and allocated to different cost divisions will have an impact on these divisions and the decisions made. The important aspect to consider is that the ABC system should identify the right allocation of the costs through an understanding of the time spent by the staff including other factors that the organisation may deem important in the ABC system. E.  LIMITATIONS OF INFORMATION FROM ABC SYSTEMS The limitations of information from ABC systems can be looked at in two ways: (1) limitations in establishing and implementing the ABC systems, and (2) limitations in the use of the information resulting from the ABC systems implemented in an organisation. This section looks at both of these limitations. E.1.  Limitations in establishing and implementing the ABC systems One of the key challenges in implementing an activity-based costing system is the ability to collect the correct information for the proper use of the system. Throughout the years of the use of the ABC system, a number of limitations have come to the fore. The key limitations most often cited have been the following: Subjectivity in distribution of time. A key concern of users of the ABC system was the proper distribution of time among the key activities that employees worked on, and the subjectivity in allotting the time raised some concerns and issues in the potential reliability of the system (Journal of Accountancy, 2008). In recent years, there have been improved processes which were designed to minimise the subjectivity in the distribution of time by employees, particularly with the approach used in time-driven activity-based costing with a key benefit in simplifying the process (Lambino, 2007). However, this has not been well communicated and there is still a general concern about this issue for the ABC system. Complexity of retrieving information for the ABC system. Another factor that had hampered the use of the ABC system has been the general feeling that the retrieval of information was too complex and that the input required in order to complete the process for the ABC system was too demanding (Max, 2008). Similar to the point above, there have been further developments which have tended to minimise the complexity surrounding the retrieval of the information needed for the ABC system but this has not been accepted widely though the trend is changing. The two limitations highlighted above are the key reasons that implementation of the ABC system has been limited. In organisations where the ABC system has been implemented, the two limitations identified have affected the use of information churned out by the ABC system. This is discussed further in the next part. E.2.  Limitations in the use of information resulting from ABC systems For the organisations which have made the decision to implement the ABC system, there are still limitations in the information that need to be considered as the information is utilised in the organisations’ decision-making. The key limitations are the following: Costing not an exact science. The output from the ABC system remain as estimates and are impacted by the subjectivity of some of the inputs as described in the previous part of the this section. The use of cost averages and estimates lessens the transparency of the cost and profitability information and thus results in a key limitation in the use of the ABC system (Max, 2007). Potential misuse of information. This argument is not be construed as to be done intentionally. But where the information is not properly linked between activities and processes, the potential exists to have inaccurate results which then impact on how the information is utilised (Crance, Castellano Roehm, 2001). F.  CONCLUSION It is possible to implement an ABC system for ExxonMobil. A number of conclusions and follow up steps can be highlighted: High level draft of implementing was shown to be possible. Next step is to have a proper review to follow the complete stages if the organisation were keen to go ahead. Detailed process is needed to complete an ABC system implementation – ExxonMobil will need to commit to this and assign resources in order to push the effort to have the ABC system implemented. Commitment and transparency important for the implementation – It is critical to get the buy-in and support of top management and the key managers of the organisation. Through these next steps, it is possible to move into the next stage of having the ABC approach designed for ExxonMobil and implemented in the organisation. REFERENCES Allott, A. (2004), ‘Activity-based management’, New Straits Times, 3 July 2004, [online], accessed on 11 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Crance, J., Castellano, J., Roehm, H. A. (2001), ‘SPC enhances ABC’, Industrial Management, 43(6), [online], accessed on 11 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com ExxonMobil (2007), ‘ExxonMobil: Taking on the world’s toughest challenge’, 2007 Summary Annual Report Journal of Accountancy (2008), ‘Linking Strategy to Operations’, 206 (44), [online], accessed on 11 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Lambino, C. (2008), ‘Time-Driven activity-based costing’, Government Finance Review, 23(4), [online], accessed on 9 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Lee, T. (2005), ‘Environmental issues and managerial accounting: The IFAC exposure draft’, Petroleum Accounting Financial Management Journal, 24(1), [online], accessed on 10 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Maiga, A. S., Jacobs, F. A. (2003), ‘Balanced scorecard, activity-based costing and company performance: An empirical analysis’, Journal of Managerial Issues, 15(3), [online], accessed on 10 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Max, M. (2008), ‘ABC Trends in the Banking Sector: A Practitioners Perspective’, Journal of Bank Cost Management Accounting, 21(1), [online], accessed on 10 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Max, M. (2007), ‘Leveraging Process Documentation for Time-Driven Activity Based Costing’, Journal of Bank Cost Management Accounting, 20(3), [online], accessed on 11 November from Global Factiva Database, http://factiva.com Chronic Stress: Causes, Effects and Treatments Chronic Stress: Causes, Effects and Treatments Report on Chronic Stress Introduction Stress is an unavoidable part of life. Be it at home or the workplace, different challenges arise which ultimately lead to stress. There are various types of stress related issues, one of which is chronic stress (American Psychological Association, 2015). Chronic stress is that branch of stress when there is an overwhelming response emotionally to any situation which an individual deems to be out of his or her control. This type of stress is characterized by the release of corticosteroids in the human body, especially the endocrine system which triggers the increase of stress. Though these hormones might be beneficial for a short period of time, continuous stress inducing activities can lead to a constant release of hormones which can cause fatal side effects (Bruno, 2012). Detection of chronic stress There are various methods through which chronic stress can be detected early to ensure immediate correction. Our body begins to give us various warning signals during our daily life which can be a symptom of increased stress. It affects all the functioning of our body and makes us feel unbalanced and hypersensitive (Chandola, Brunner Marmot, 2006). If a person is suffering from chronic stress, then he or she will be easily irritated or overwhelmed by any situation (Sanders, 2014). These people will be unable to concentrate on anything for long and will constantly worry about the tasks ahead of them. Also, they will feel extremely isolated and suffer from physical strain and nausea. These symptoms can also be related to other physical or psychological problems and therefore requires a full diagnosis by a doctor to be sure (Scott, 2014). Differences and similarities with other diseases Although the physical and chemical reactions to various mental disorders can be similar, there is a vast difference between them. For example, stress is similar yet different from anxiety in many ways (The Stress Management Society, 2015). Stanford University’s associate chair of psychiatry and behavioral sciences David Spiegel says that â€Å"while the line between stress and anxiety often gets blurred, there are distinct things to be aware of-including how these emotions affect the body and the root causes of each† (Holmes, 2014). The chemical reactions that occur in our body are very similar during chronic stress and anxiety. The physical reactions that occur in our body during both stress inducing and anxiety inducing causes include an increase of heartbeats, quick breathing and tightening of muscles. Yet anxiety and stress are different in various ways. He says that while we feel chronic stress we are very much aware of the causes behind it while in anxiety we usua lly do not know what exactly we are anxious about (Holmes, 2014). Another important psychological term which is often confused with chronic stress is depression. Laura J. Martin, MD and MPH, states that the causes behind both chronic stress and depression are often the same (McEwen Lasley, 2002) Any traumatic incident in our lives, such as loss of a job or the death of a loved one, can lead to both chronic stress as well as depression. In fact, it is more likely that while chronic stress is the first response to any such life-changing situation, prolonged exposure to stress can also lead to depression. â€Å"Stress, or being stressed out, leads to behaviours and patterns that in turn can lead to chronic stress burden and increase the risk of major depression,† states Bruce McEwen, PhD (McEwen Lasley, 2002). But it has also been noted that depression and chronic stress can be caused by different reasons. Most people who are resilient towards stressful activities are quite able to carry on with their lives without becoming depressed (Segerst rom Miller, 2004). Also, people tend to become depressed even though there are little or no stressful incidents in their lives. While any one incident can cause chronic stress, it requires a combination of a few stressors to become clinically depressed (McEwen Lasley, 2002). Effects of chronic stress Effect on health: Stressful activities are always around us, yet people almost always find a way to deal with the stress. If you are stressed over a huge pile of work, deadlines to meet, a conflict with your spouse or any other incident, your body always reacts in the same way (Psychiatry, 2009). The release of stress hormones in our body helps us to respond to the chronic stress until it is resolved (Sincero, 2012). But a prolonged exposure to chronic stress can lead to a continuous flow of hormones in our body which can be harmful. It disturbs all the other systems of our body and causes a rise of blood pressure levels, increased risk of heart attacks or strokes, decrease in fertility and accelerated aging (Miller, Chen Zhou, 2007). The usual physical effects of chronic stress are pain, insomnia, loss of weight and skin conditions like eczema (Sanders, 2014). Also, Dr. Richard Weinstein, a private chiropractor and a member of the American Chiropractic Association’s Council on Nutrition and the National Institute of Chiropractic Research, says that â€Å"the adrenal glands have a nasty tendency to rebound†, which means that the physical effects of chronic stress can return â€Å"if the cause of the cortisol imbalance is not addressed.† (Weinstein, 2004) Effect on behavior: Chronic stress can lead to certain changes in our behavior pattern as well. Since chronic stress is a result of a prolonged exposure to stressors, many changes can be detected in the behavior of these people (Carthage, 2013). The patients who are suffering from chronic stress reveal particular habits and behavior, such as moodiness, irritability, agitated behavior or isolation from friends and family (Helpguide.org, 2015). These people are prone to angry outbursts and impulsive decisions and are generally unhappy about everything around them. Their eating and sleep patterns also change and they develop certain unhealthy habits like drinking alcohol, biting nails or pacing. This in turn affects their social and personal lives (Weinstein, 2004). Effect on brain: According to the recent findings of the University of California, Berkeley, it has been found that due to the excess release of hormones due to chronic stress, certain permanent changes occur in the brain which results in people becoming prone to other mental diseases (Lupien et al., 2009). After conducting a series of experiments, Daniela Kaufer, UC Berkeley associate professor of integrative biology, and her colleagues, have come to the conclusion that chronic stress causes the generation of more myelin-producing cells and fewer neurons than acceptable (Weinstein, 2004). This often leads to an increase of myelin or white matter in certain parts of the brain, which can cause a disruption in the critical functions of the brain like the neuronal system (Bergland, 2014) Treatment of chronic stress At one point in our lives, everybody experiences stress due to one factor or another. Since avoiding stress is completely impossible, there are certain steps that can be taken to cope with it (Breazeale, 2012). Some of them include: Consult a proper psychologist or psychiatrist and ask him to do a full evaluation if you are experiencing overwhelming situations, suicidal thoughts, etc. Seek help from a doctor and redress any new or existing health issues. Contact your friends, family, community or organization to share emotional issues and ask for help in dealing with stressful situations. Identify any symptoms that you might be going through, such as eating or sleeping disorder, anger, depression or loneliness, and try to solve these problems. Prioritise your tasks and decide what must be completed now and what you can do later. Refuse to take up any new tasks if you feel overburdened. Make a list of what you accomplished at the end of the day. Avoid spending too much time thinking about certain issues. Indulge in regular exercises daily and plan your exercising and eating activities to make sure they are balanced. Take up certain stress reducing activities like yoga, meditation etc. (Thaker et al., 2006) Conclusion Being â€Å"stressed out†, as many people would call it, and being actually stressed, both physically and mentally, is a significant issue, as highlighted in this article by the number of intricacies involved in chronic stress (Medical News Today, 2014). Whether the symptoms of stress are recent or have been continuing for a long period of time, it is important to immediately look into the problem and discover new forms and therapies to address and solve the issue (Holmes, 2014). To seek relief from the stressors, it would be better to consult a proficient therapist and examine the causes behind the stress and how to decrease it. References American Psychological Association. (2015). Understanding chronic stress. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/understanding-chronic-stress.aspx Bergland, C. (2014). Chronic Stress Can Damage Brain Structure and Connectivity. Psychology Today. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201402/chronic-stress-can-damage-brain-structure-and-connectivity Breazeale, R. (2012). Ways To Manage Chronic Stress. Psychology Today. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/in-the-face-adversity/201202/ways-manage-chronic-stress Bruno, K. (2012). The Stress-Depression Connection | Can Stress Cause Depression?. Webmd.com. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.webmd.com/depression/features/stress-depression Carthage,. (2013). 11 Behavioural symptoms of stress. Are you experiencing stress?. Coaching Positive Performance. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.coachingpositiveperformance.com/11-behavioural-symptoms-of-stress/ Chandola, T., Brunner, E., Marmot, M. (2006). Chronic stress at work and the metabolic syndrome: prospective study.Bmj,332(7540), 521-525. Helpguide.org,. (2015). Stress Symptoms, Signs, Causes: The Effects of Stress Overload and What You Can Do About It. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-symptoms-causes-and-effects.htm Holmes, L. (2014). The Difference Between Stress And Anxiety. The Huffington Post. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/25/stress-anxiety-difference_n_4833172.html?ir=India Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition.Nature Reviews Neuroscience,10(6), 434-445. McEwen, B., Lasley, E. (2002). The end of stress as we know it. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. Medical News Today,. (2014). What is stress? How to deal with stress. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/145855.php Miller, G. E., Chen, E., Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans.Psychological bulletin,133(1), 25. Psychiatry, M. (2009). Stress Management Strategies Marks Psychiatry. Marks Psychiatry. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://markspsychiatry.com/stress-management-strategies/ Sanders, R. (2014). New evidence that chronic stress predisposes brain to mental illness. Newscenter.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2014/02/11/chronic-stress-predisposes-brain-to-mental-illness/ Scott, E. (2014). What Are Your Stress Symptoms?. About.com Health. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://stress.about.com/od/understandingstress/a/stress_symptoms.htm Segerstrom, S. C., Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry.Psychological bulletin,130(4), 601. Sincero, S. (2012). Three Different Kinds of Stress Acute, Episodic and Chronic. Explorable.com. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from https://explorable.com/three-different-kinds-of-stress Thaker, P. H., Han, L. Y., Kamat, A. A., Arevalo, J. M., Takahashi, R., Lu, C., Sood, A. K. (2006). Chronic stress promotes tumor growth and angiogenesis in a mouse model of ovarian carcinoma.Nature medicine,12(8), 939-944. The Stress Management Society. (2015). Common Stressors that You can Encounter Every Day. Retrieved 10 March 2015, from http://www.stress.org.uk/stress-solutions/common-stressors.aspx Weinstein, R. (2004). The stress effect. New York: Avery.

Victim Profiling Is A Subject Criminology Essay

Victim Profiling Is A Subject Criminology Essay Victim profiling is a subject that has continued to attract a lot of public imagination. Many investigators have studied human behavior and crime in the broad context of victim profiling. Currently, victim profiling is not a subject that can be viewed secretively as a mysterious technique employed by the U.S police force when seeking to solve crime. Its main objective is to understand a crime from both the victim and perpetrators perspectives. It involves both investigative psychology and crime scene analysis. The subject has also received a lot of media attention as a technique employed by the police. As the police try to ensure public safety, they will use several tools to apprehend criminals. Despite the tremendous advances made in victim profiling, the technique is characterized with various problems. Victim profiling systems needs to be improved to ensure it provides accurate and reliable information. It should be noted that if victim profiling is improved and properly implement ed, it will continue to be a valuable and exciting scientific tool for criminal investigations. Keywords: Victim profiling, criminal investigations, crime scene Victim Profiling Victim profiling can be defined as a set of approaches and techniques used to predict the characteristics of an unidentified offender through investigating and analyzing the evidence obtained from the scene of crime. By analyzing the scene of crime, an investigator aims to understand the personality, demographic and behavioral characteristics of the offender. The characteristics obtained from the crime scene can be used to identify the behavior patterns of the unknown offender. The paper will address the issue of victim profiling, problems that make it less effective and also provide evidence of ineffectiveness. Finally, it will suggest how these problems can be addressed in order to improve the effectiveness of victim profiling. Victim profiling generally determines the cause and effect relationship aspects between the scene of crime, victim, witness and the offender. The technique is mostly used in crime scenes where the identity of the offender is not known and in serious types of crimes such as murder and rape. The process uses crime scene information to create a psychological portrait of the unknown perpetrator (Muller, 2000). A profiler will take information such as the state of the crime scene, nature of weapons used and what was said or done to the victim to come up with a victim profile. In addition, it can include information such as geographic pattern of the crime, mode of entry and exit from the crime scene and where the offender resides. The real process of victim profiling may differ from one investigator to another depending on ones level of training. However, the aim of the process will still remain the same which is to deduce the personality, physical and behavioral characteristics of the perpetrator (Muller, 2000). It should be noted that a victim profile by itself will not catch a criminal or solve a crime. However, the profile will play a big role in assisting the police in their investigations. A victim profile may not be very accurate in suggesting with certainty the real perpetrator of a crime. Nonetheless, it greatly assists the police by providing the right direction in crime investigation. For instance, when the police have not found any leads in a crime, a victim profile can prove potentially important by suggesting helpful hints which the police may have overlooked. According to Muller (2000), there are some crimes where victim profiling may not be necessary. However, it is very suitable in crimes where the unknown offender leaves behind signs of psychopathology or in situations where the crime scene illustrates some form of ritualistic or violent nature. There are several approaches of victim profiling such as geographic profiling, crime scene analysis, investigative psychology and diagnostic evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation basically relies on clinical judgment. Crime scene analysis approach is the most popular technique of victim profiling and was developed by the Behavioral Science Unit of the American Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Crime scene analysis approach relies on deductive reasoning, intuitive thinking and pattern identification done by experienced investigators. On the other hand, investigative psychology relies on behaviorism. It is based on the fundamental principle that the manner in which a crime is committed can illustrate the behavioral characteristics of the offender (Young, 2006). Geographic profiling approach emphasizes on the crime scene location in providing offenders information. The Problems of Victim Profiling Since victim profiling cannot be regarded exclusively as a science, debates have been raised over its effectiveness. There are various methods of carrying out victim profiling. As a result, varied opinions have emerged over which approach is considered the best. Some people question the scientific validity of an offenders victim profile because it is seen that it is hugely based on guess work. For instance, in a murder case, the manner in which a victims body is left can mean various things which may not really be the same considering the many factors that may need to be looked at. Therefore, if victim profiling is not done accurately, it can generate wrong leads and throw off investigations (Young, 2006). Over-generalizations and stereotyping can also impact on the effectiveness of the victim profiling technique. For instance, a cloud judgment may be used to reason that most offenders in rape cases are single men living with their parents. However, this may not necessarily be the case and can lead to creating a false victim profile if the offender turns out to be a married man with his own family. The other problem that hinders the credibility of victim profiling is lack of adequate data or insufficient interpretive capacity (Kocsis, 2007). These problems may fall short in providing a definitive and comprehensive identification of an unknown offender. This can be the case considering the uniqueness of offenders variables such as the modus operandi. The validity of victim profiling has emerged as a major problem. According to Kocsis (2007) the validity of the technique may be questioned since offenders information is based on anecdotal accounts. Despite the usefulness of these accounts, they cannot be confidently relied upon to confirm the validity of victim profiling. Most of these accounts are co-authored by investigators who might be led by typical human psyche of success rather than failure (Kocsis, 2007). As a result, these anecdotal accounts may sometimes lack objective reasoning which may affect the accuracy of the process. Several people have criticized the psycho-investigative techniques currently used in victim profiling. These techniques are based on intuitions/instincts which affects the scientific validity of victim profiling. Another problem in victim profiling that needs to be addressed is the absence of regulation. Due to lack of regulation, several unreliable statements may be made on the media by inexperienced or self-appointed profilers (Kocsis, 2007). Due to lack of regulation, disparities exist in the level of skills required from a profiler. Also, disparities in the skill levels may affect the overall quality of the process. Lack of uniformity is the other problem faced in victim profiling. For instance, the nomenclature used in describing the process lacks uniformity. The process has been referred to in many terms such as victim profiling, criminal profiling, offender profiling, criminal personality profiling and criminal psychological profiling. The reliability of data used in victim profiling is a major issue that affects its effectiveness. The unreliable information relied upon may lead to inaccuracies hence affecting the usefulness of the techniques. The problem of unreliable data affects the reputation of the technique among professionals. Some critiques have argued that victim profiling is based on false typologies not supported by empirical theories. Due to problems associated with its unreliability, it can lead to inaccurate profiles which may derail investigations or may lead to biasness towards a wrong suspect. Evidence of its Ineffectiveness The 2002 Beltway Serial Sniper Shootings that happened in Eastern United States as an evidence of over-generalizations involved in victim profiling. Several victim profiles were made after the shootings. When the suspects were later apprehended, it emerged that the victim profiles had little similarities with the suspects. Another example of over-generalizations in victim profiling is the case of Granny Killer which occurred in Sydney, Australia in 1989(Kicses, 2007).The victim profile identified the unknown killer as a young male of African descent. When the culprit was eventually found, he turned out to be an elderly Anglo-Saxon. Evidence to illustrate lack of uniformity can be observed in the several terminologies used to refer to the process. The process does not have a uniform baseline of defining a serial murder. According to Muller (2000) some people classify a person who has killed two people as a serial murderer. To others, one needs to have killed up to four people to become a serial murder. Therefore, a cut-off point is necessary of identifying whom to label as a serial murderer. Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990) carried out a research to determine the accuracy of victim profiles and the qualitative differences among profilers in a series of cases. The profilers included professional profilers, psychologists, students and detectives. According to the findings, the accuracy of the different profilers varied depending on the case investigated. Profilers were found to be more accurate than other groups in cases of sexual offense. However, the profilers were realized not to be accurate as the detectives in ca ses of homicide. The study also realized that professional profilers wrote more detailed and richer reports than non-profilers (Pinizzotto and Finkel, 1990). This study can act as evidence to show that not just anybody who bears the name profiler has the capability to effectively do victim profiling. Therefore, there is a need for a proper regulation to ensure that only professional profilers with the required set of skills engage in victim profiling. How to Improve victim Profiling Since victim profiling is still developing, its credentialing and regulation needs to be given more focus. This can be achieved through better communication among investigative agencies on better ways of linking the different approaches of victim profiling. Victim profiling practice needs to be incorporated into a professional body to ensure that it is regulated. Such a regulatory body will help ensure that only people with the required set of skills are allowed to do victim profiling. Secondly, more research needs to be done on victim profiling practice. Such research needs to be open to scientific scrutiny to ensure that they provide reliable and accurate information. Currently, victim profiling is regarded more as an art. If more research is done, the practical techniques of the field will be improved by scientific approach. This will ensure that victim profiling delinks itself from using literature based unreliable data to becoming a vital tool in crime investigation. In addition, victim profiling can be improved through development of standards which will provide the process with uniformity. Developing standards of uniformity will ensure that communication problems are reduced through use of common terminology. Also, creation of standards will minimize cases of disparities in the practice which arise due to different methodological procedures. Also, victim profiling can be improved through training and educational requirements for the profilers. Improved training will improve the profilers competency and skill set. As a result, the profiler will be able to avoid biases regarding offenders from influencing a victim profile. Implementation to the System As technology continues to develop, there is a need to integrate modern computer technologies in victim profiling. For instance, the Canadian police have introduced Computer-Based Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System (VICLAS) (Young, 2006). VICLAS allows detailed documentation of all solved and unsolved cases of sexual assault, homicide and missing persons. The computer program contains a feature that links various crime databases to improve the analytical capacity of the system. Implementation of such systems among various investigative agencies and the police will improve victim profiling technology. Furthermore, it will give the process a more scientific inclination. The different approaches of victim profiling need to be integrated into an effective tool for predicting criminal characteristics and behavior. Geographical profiling, crime scene analysis and investigative psychology need to be correlated to standardize and conceptualize victim profiling technique. Implementing such developments will increase the validity and reliability of victim profiling. Profilers and investigative agencies need to develop better trust to ensure the success of victim profiling. Profilers and investigative agencies need to share crime scene data to assist in determining the existence of similar cases in surrounding areas. Similarities can be realized through comparing notes on offenders modus operandi and any form of signature left. In addition, profilers need to avoid inductive and indiscriminate profiling and adhere to sound decision making and behavioral science principles. Biasness, personal beliefs and over-generalizations need to be set aside in favor of deductive reasoning. Conclusion Victim profiling is a technique that is still developing and there is a lot that needs to be done. Victim profiling needs to be accurately and reliably in order to be helpful in crime investigations. There are several problems associated with victim profiling such as lack of uniformity, absence of regulation, inadequate information, validity and accuracy concerns. However, the effectiveness of victim profiling can be improved through better training and education of profilers. Also, more emphasis on research is necessary in order to make it more scientific. Furthermore, the technique needs to be professionalized by incorporating it into a professional body to regulate the competency of people who can perform it. Creation of uniform standards in the different approaches of victim profiling, improving linkages between profilers and other investigative agencies, and adoption of modern technologies are other ways of improving the effectiveness of victim profiling.

Free College Essays - The Use of Time in Antony and Cleopatra :: Antony Cleopatra Essays

  Use of Time in Anthony and Cleopatra  Ã‚     Shakespeare's use of time in Anthony and Cleopatra is seemingly [1] quite erratic.   However, it is important to note that Shakespeare was a playwright and his job was to write interesting drama, not to accurately record details of history.   It therefore seems quite unfair to expect him to use time in a precise manner.   However, to dismiss Shakespeare's use of time as merely a mistake or the by product of his dramatisation of history [2]is to do it injustice.   It could easily be argued that there is a method in it.[3]   To show this we can analyse one chunk of the play, staring at Act 1 Scene 3.   Here is where Anthony finally plucks up the courage to leave Egypt.   In Act 1 Scene 4, we are in Rome and here we have Caesar complaining about Anthony while messengers bring news of how Pompey is doing at sea as well as his allies Menecrates and Menas.     In act 1 Scene 5 we are back in Egypt and Cleopatra is talking about how she misses Anthony.   In Act 2 Scene 2 we are back in Rome and Anthony has finished his journey across the Mediterranean.   Anthony and Caesar get back on speaking terms and decide that to cement their relationship (or to destroy it, depending on your level of cynicism).   Octavia should marry Anthony.   By Act 2 Scene 5the news of Anthony's betrothal has reached Cleopatra in Egypt and though she rants and raves she doesn't actually do anything constructive about it.   In Act 2 Scene 7 we are in Rome again and there is a party where the three triumvirates become drunk to varying degrees .   In Act 3 Scene 2 Octavia and Anthony leave Rome together.   The next scene is in Egypt, where again very little action takes place. In Act 3 Scene 4 the most remarkable act of condensation occurs when eight years of Octavia and Anthony's marriage are meant to have occurred.     By Act 3 Scene 6 we are in Rome and discussing the fact that Anthony has left Octavia in Athens and is back in Egypt.[4]   So we see that in this chunk of the play there have been many things occurring in Rome, while in Egypt it might as well have been one long afternoon for all the deeds and actions that have occurred.

Impact of Unemployment on the Family Essay -- Economics, Unemployment E

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to understand the effects that unemployment has on the family as a whole. In today’s society being unemployed impacts greatly on almost every aspect of an individual’s life and depending on their personal circumstances, it is likely to impact on other family members lives too. Today, the possibility of loosing your job looms on the horizon for many of us. Up until a few months ago I was among the millions of people that is unemployed. Dealing with the loss of job is very similar to the emotions one feels when they experience loss through a divorce or death of a loved one. Unemployment carries an array of emotions ranging from stress, fear, anxiety, and depression. Unemployment contributes to low self-esteem and to family instability, decreased family relations, and in some cases family violence. Lessons can emerge from those who cope well with unemployment, but the immediate goal is to survive emotionally and financially until you have a clear direction for you and your family. In my research paper I will explore not just the individual directly, but the economical and psychological affects unemployment have on the family as a whole. Current Picture: A substantial number of workers living in families have experienced some type of lay off. The unemployment rate has skyrocketed, leaving families to deal with the economical and psychological effects of unemployment. According to the Illinois Department of Unemployment the ILLINOIS JOBLESS RATE increased to 6.5% in February. CHICAGO -- The Illinois unemployment rate rose from 6.3% to 6.5% (seasonally adjusted) in February, as payroll jobs dropped slightly from a year ago, according to statistics released by the Illinois Department of Employment Security (IDES). â€Å"Employer payrolls, after adding jobs in January, posted a modest job decline in February, as businesses again postponed hiring due to uncertainties about the economy,† said IDES Director Brenda A. Russell. â€Å"While job gains were recorded in seven of the state’s 12 major industry groups, they were outweighed by continued losses in Manufacturing, and in the Transportation/Warehousing sec tor. These losses brought total payrolls down marginally from their year-ago count.† The total number of people working in the state fell 42,200 to 5,954,700 in February, a decline of 0.7%. The number of unemployed rose 9,700... ...ar greater than the cost of getting treatment. Consult your local mental health clinics, social services agencies or professional counselors for help for yourself and family members who are affected by your unemployment. Some assistance may be covered by your health insurance or, if you do not have insurance, counseling is often available on a "sliding scale" fee, based on income. Change is difficult: Denial: At this stage you will minimize or just deny what has happened. You may even pretend what happened is great! In which some cases this may be true, in order to give an individual a reason to go ahead and open a business, or switch careers that they have been wanting to do for a while. Resistance: Blaming others for what occurred. Experience: You’ll fully experience the change and the reality of it. You may feel a sadness that you can’t continue on in your old situation. (family and friends can help at this stage by creating a positive attitude during this stage). Acceptance: You start accepting the situation for what it is. This helps you to let go! And began to think about your next steps. Reference: http://64.239.109.64/advice/articles/layoff/default.htm

Workplace Violence Essay -- Essays Papers

Workplace Violence â€Å"And who has not thought that the impersonal world deserves no better than to be destroyed by one fabulous sign of his displeasure?† (J. Bronowski, The Face of Violence) Workplace violence has become a concern for both public and private companies, and has prompted these companies to implement anti-violence programs. As well they should, for the Bureau of Justice Statistics shows in their Special Report on Workplace Violence, researched by Dr. Greg Warchol , that in each year for the period of 1992 – 96 more than 2.2 million residents were victims of violent acts while they were working or on duty. (BJS Special Report, July 1998, NCJ 168634) The most common violent act committed was simple assault with an estimated 1.5 million victimizations each year and then followed by an estimated yearly average of 395,000 aggravated assaults, 51,000 rapes and sexual assaults, 84,000 robberies and 1,000 homicides. A stranger to the victim committed the majority of workplace crime while less than 1% were intimates. Men were more likely to be the perpetrator and or the victim of violence. In the public arena retail workers had the highest rate of robbery and aggravated assault victimization while police and teachers were the most often victimized in the public arena. 20 % of violent incidents in the workplace involved an armed offender of which a firearm was used fewer than 10% of the time. This is that data that faces all employers in every sector and by which they must base their approach to formulate programs that will help create a safe and comfortable atmosphere for both their employees and their clients. Many of the conditions that prevail in today’s workplace seem to breed critical incidents. Among them are: 1.) Competitive pressures. Relentless global market forces demand constant changes in methods of production and workplace organization. Employees find themselves having to perform in new ways and more efficiently. In addition, privacy has been eroded by electronic surveillance on the job, drug testing and computerized performance monitoring. Abrasive co-workers or autocratic supervisors create additional stresses. The long-term consequences may be overwhelming psychological stress leading to hostility and outbursts of violent or bizarre behavior. 2.) Domestic dysfunction overspill. Family discord, domestic violence, ... ... Workplace violence as you can see, is a problem that plagues us all. With the pressure on everyone to perform, from the man in the ditch to the CEO, its know wonder were having a problem. And both the public and private sectors of business are in a mad dash to stop the violence that is happening. With all the major corporations having either an anti violence program or rules about such behavior, what is the cost to the individual? Will they have to work harder and more efficiently? Will there be more threats and intimidation to perform, to cover the cost of these programs? Or will business see an improvement in the working relations of its employees? With the right people in charge of these programs, there is hope for improvement, but only if business is serious about the problem! You see very little TV coverage of work place violence, unless it extremely violent. Even then there must be a death, or deaths to bring on the sensationalizing that TV needs. Because of this, will business wait for the coverage to demand a solution or will they head it off. When you’re at work, there’s no reason â€Å"†¦ to be destroyed by one fabulous sign of his displeasure†. Only time will tell.

Describe Holmes and Rahe’s (1967) Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Srrs) and Describe to What Extent It Is a Valid Taxonomy of the Causes of Stress

Describe Holmes and Rahe’s (1967) Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and describe to what extent it is a valid taxonomy of the causes of stress. The top five stressful events, which can happen in an individual’s life, are categorised as ‘death of a spouse’, ‘divorce’, ‘martial separation’, ‘jail term’, and ‘death of a close family member’. Also, events such as ‘vacation’ and ‘change in eating habits’ are considered to be minor life changes on the scale. Each event is attributed to an arbitrary value or ‘LCU’ (Life Change Units) ranging from one to a hundred. From this, an individual is given a cumulative score based upon all of the stressful events which have happened to them over the previous year. People with a sum total of between two hundred and three hundred life change units are supposed to develop major health problems. People scoring over one hundred units are likely to suffer a moderate period of ill-health (Holmes and Rahe, 1967). It can be said that there is a considerable bias in some of the items on the list of life events, favouring adults over younger individuals. Needless to say, teenagers suffer from stress, but it is unconvincing to argue that they need to cope with occurrences such as ‘death of a spouse’, ‘divorce’ or ‘marital separation’ and it is likely that they will not find ‘vacation’ stressful but the complete opposite. It also should be noted that stressful events including ‘exams pressures’ and ‘concerns about weight or appearance’ are not included in the forty-three life events, and these can be considerably stressful for younger people. This reiterates the fact that some items need to be added to the model, for this scale to be more generalisable in characterising the causes of stress. References